RELIGION IN LATER VEDIC PERIOD
In the later Vedic period, important changes took place in religious life. Rituals and formulae became prominent m the cult of sacrifice. Prajapati, the creator, became supreme among gods. Some of the minor gods of the Rigvedic period (e.g., Vishnu and Rudra) became important in the later Vedic period. Signs of idolatry also appeared. Some of the social orders came to have their own deities, e.g., Pushan, responsible for well-being of the cattle, became the god of the shudras. Though prayers still formed part of worship, they no longer were valued for placating the gods. Sacrifices However, towards the end of the period began a strong reaction against priestly domination and sacrificial cults and rituals with the composition of the Upanishads which valued right belief and knowledge more than anything else.
Wednesday, November 25, 2009
SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
1. Sankhya According the the early Sankhya philosophy, the world was created and it has evolved more by nature or prakriti, than by God. However, Purusha or spirit was later introduced as an element in the Sankhya system. The new theory says that nature and spiritual element together created the world.
2. Yoga The Yoga school says a person can attain salvation through meditation. and physical application. Yoga throws light on development of the knowledge of physiology and anatomy in ancient times.
3. Nyaya Nyaya-the school of analysis-was developed as a system of logic. It says salvation is attainable through the acquisition of knowledge. The school has helped in development of systematic thinking and reasoning.
4. Vaisheshika According to the Vaisheshika philosophy, earth, water, fire, air and ether (sky), when combined, give rise to new objects. The school propounded the atom theory marking the beginning of physics in India. However, it preached belief in God and spiritualism.
5. Mimamsa According to the Mimamsa philosophy, the Vedas contain the eternal truth. Hence, it strongly recommended the performance of Vedic sacrifices to attain salvation.
6. Vedanta Badarayan's Brahmasutra formed the basic text of the Vedanta philosophy. According to this school, brahma is the reality and everything else is unreal (maya). The self (soul) or atma is identical with brahma. The Vedantic philosophy is traced to the earlier Upanishads. The theory of Kilrma was linked to this school of philosophy.
Though the two epics-the Mahabharata and the Ramayana-were compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic period. The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is older than the Ramayana and describes the period from the tenth century Be to the fourth century AD. Originally, it contained 8800 verses and was called ]aya Samhita. Later, the number of verses was raised to 24,000 and the book became known as Bharata. Today, the book is called Mahabhtirata, having one lakh verses-also called Satasahsri Samhita. The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, originally had 6,000 verses, but later the number of verses was raised to 12,000 and finally to 24,000. Its composition started in the fifth century Be and passed through five stages; the fifth stage ended in the twelfth century AD. It may be remarked that while the Ramayana depicts conflicts between the Aryans and non-Aryans, the Mahabharata is concerned with conflicts between Aryans themselves.
The Dharmashastras deal with religious duties and civil law. The principal Dharmas1!astras are attributed to Manu, Vishnu, Yajnavalkya and Narada. They were probably composed in the early Christian centuries. They prescribe rigidity in the caste system and, apart from the four traditional varnas, refer to the 'mixed castes'. They give us a clear idea of the four ashramas (stages of life) through which every 'twice-born' was expected to pass. They also clearly indicate the declining position of women. The Yajnavalkasmriti is more advanced and unconventional in doctrines than the others; it allows widows to inherit property.
1. Sankhya According the the early Sankhya philosophy, the world was created and it has evolved more by nature or prakriti, than by God. However, Purusha or spirit was later introduced as an element in the Sankhya system. The new theory says that nature and spiritual element together created the world.
2. Yoga The Yoga school says a person can attain salvation through meditation. and physical application. Yoga throws light on development of the knowledge of physiology and anatomy in ancient times.
3. Nyaya Nyaya-the school of analysis-was developed as a system of logic. It says salvation is attainable through the acquisition of knowledge. The school has helped in development of systematic thinking and reasoning.
4. Vaisheshika According to the Vaisheshika philosophy, earth, water, fire, air and ether (sky), when combined, give rise to new objects. The school propounded the atom theory marking the beginning of physics in India. However, it preached belief in God and spiritualism.
5. Mimamsa According to the Mimamsa philosophy, the Vedas contain the eternal truth. Hence, it strongly recommended the performance of Vedic sacrifices to attain salvation.
6. Vedanta Badarayan's Brahmasutra formed the basic text of the Vedanta philosophy. According to this school, brahma is the reality and everything else is unreal (maya). The self (soul) or atma is identical with brahma. The Vedantic philosophy is traced to the earlier Upanishads. The theory of Kilrma was linked to this school of philosophy.
Though the two epics-the Mahabharata and the Ramayana-were compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic period. The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is older than the Ramayana and describes the period from the tenth century Be to the fourth century AD. Originally, it contained 8800 verses and was called ]aya Samhita. Later, the number of verses was raised to 24,000 and the book became known as Bharata. Today, the book is called Mahabhtirata, having one lakh verses-also called Satasahsri Samhita. The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, originally had 6,000 verses, but later the number of verses was raised to 12,000 and finally to 24,000. Its composition started in the fifth century Be and passed through five stages; the fifth stage ended in the twelfth century AD. It may be remarked that while the Ramayana depicts conflicts between the Aryans and non-Aryans, the Mahabharata is concerned with conflicts between Aryans themselves.
The Dharmashastras deal with religious duties and civil law. The principal Dharmas1!astras are attributed to Manu, Vishnu, Yajnavalkya and Narada. They were probably composed in the early Christian centuries. They prescribe rigidity in the caste system and, apart from the four traditional varnas, refer to the 'mixed castes'. They give us a clear idea of the four ashramas (stages of life) through which every 'twice-born' was expected to pass. They also clearly indicate the declining position of women. The Yajnavalkasmriti is more advanced and unconventional in doctrines than the others; it allows widows to inherit property.
PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE OF LATER VEDIC AGE
PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE OF LATER VEDIC AGE
The corpus of later Vedic literature comprises the later three Vedas (Sama, Yajur and Atharva), the Brahmanas, the AranyakJls and the Upanishads-all written during 1000-600 J!C (The word Veda is derived from the word Vid, i.e. to know; thus, Veda means knowledge or wisdom). Together with the Rigveda, the whole corpus of Vedic literature is termed as Shruti, Le. 'not written' by man but revealed to certain seers by God.
However, the Aryan literature also includes the four Upavedas and six Vedangas, together termed as the Smriti literature, Le., not divine in nature but written by ordinary mortals.
Vedic literature can be divided into four groups.
(i) There are Samhitas or collection of h}'It1Il1.', prayers,
sacrificial formulae, etc. The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest and the most important. The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1,549 hymns of which all but 75 are found in the Rigveda Samhita. Its hymns were used for singing at sac~fices. The Yajurveda Samhita consists partly of hymns and partly of prose, containing sacrificial formulae. It is divided into 'white' Yajurveda and 'black' Yajurveda. The Atharvaveda Samhita (the latest of the Vedas) is a book of magical formulae and its hymns deal mainly with charms and spells to control demons and spirits. It is divided into 20 books and contains about 731 hymns.
(ii) The Brahmanas are notes in prose and they explain the origin and meaning of the various hymns of the Samhitas. The Aitareya and Kilushitaki Brahmanas are assigned to the Rigveda; Tandya and ]aiminiya Brahmanas to the Samaveda; ]aittireya and Satapatha Brahmanas to the Yajurveda; and Gopatha Brahmana to the Atharvaveda. The Brahmanas also contain cosmogonic myths, old legends and gathas or verses celebrating the exploits of kings famed in priestly tradition.
(iii) Next come the Aranyakas or forest texts, books of instruction to be given in the forest or writings meant for.
wood-dwelling hermits, which are found as appendices to the Brahmanas. These treatises resemble the Brahmanas in language, style and even context, but they are concerned more with the allegorical significance of rites, and the mystic meaning of the Samhitas.
contain deep speculations of a philosophical character which "revolve around the two conceptions of Brahman and Atman". The Upanishads marked a reaction against sacrificial religion and are highly philosophical, dealing with the ultimate truth and reality, knowledge of which would emancipate a man. Important Upanishads are Mundaka, ]aittireya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Kiltha.
Besides, there are other ancient literary works which relate to the later Vedic period. Firstly, there are six Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas)-(i) Siksha (Pronunciation); (ii) Killpa (Ritual); (iii) Vyakarana (Grammar); (iv) Nirukta (Etymology); (v) Chhandas (Me~); and (iv) ]yotisha (Astronomy). They are composed in the form of Sutras-short rules for memorising. Secondly, there are four Upavedas-{i) Ayurveda; (ii) Dhanurveda; (iii) Gandharvaveda; and (iv) Shilpaveda.
The study of Aryan literature will remain incomplete without mentioning the six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy: (i) Kapila's Sankhya; (ii) Patanjali's Yoga; (iii) Gautama's Nyaya; (iv) Kanada's Vaishesika; (v) Jaimini's Purva Mimamsa; and (vi) Vyasa's Uttara Mimamsa.
(iv) Lastly, we have the Upanishads, 'secret or esoteric doctrines'. Some scholars derive the name from the root upani-sad which means "to sit down near some one" and isapplied to doctrines that may be imparted to a son or a trusted pupil 'seated near the teacher'. The Upanishads are either imbedded in the Aranyakas or form their supplements. They are also found as independent works. They
The corpus of later Vedic literature comprises the later three Vedas (Sama, Yajur and Atharva), the Brahmanas, the AranyakJls and the Upanishads-all written during 1000-600 J!C (The word Veda is derived from the word Vid, i.e. to know; thus, Veda means knowledge or wisdom). Together with the Rigveda, the whole corpus of Vedic literature is termed as Shruti, Le. 'not written' by man but revealed to certain seers by God.
However, the Aryan literature also includes the four Upavedas and six Vedangas, together termed as the Smriti literature, Le., not divine in nature but written by ordinary mortals.
Vedic literature can be divided into four groups.
(i) There are Samhitas or collection of h}'It1Il1.', prayers,
sacrificial formulae, etc. The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest and the most important. The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1,549 hymns of which all but 75 are found in the Rigveda Samhita. Its hymns were used for singing at sac~fices. The Yajurveda Samhita consists partly of hymns and partly of prose, containing sacrificial formulae. It is divided into 'white' Yajurveda and 'black' Yajurveda. The Atharvaveda Samhita (the latest of the Vedas) is a book of magical formulae and its hymns deal mainly with charms and spells to control demons and spirits. It is divided into 20 books and contains about 731 hymns.
(ii) The Brahmanas are notes in prose and they explain the origin and meaning of the various hymns of the Samhitas. The Aitareya and Kilushitaki Brahmanas are assigned to the Rigveda; Tandya and ]aiminiya Brahmanas to the Samaveda; ]aittireya and Satapatha Brahmanas to the Yajurveda; and Gopatha Brahmana to the Atharvaveda. The Brahmanas also contain cosmogonic myths, old legends and gathas or verses celebrating the exploits of kings famed in priestly tradition.
(iii) Next come the Aranyakas or forest texts, books of instruction to be given in the forest or writings meant for.
wood-dwelling hermits, which are found as appendices to the Brahmanas. These treatises resemble the Brahmanas in language, style and even context, but they are concerned more with the allegorical significance of rites, and the mystic meaning of the Samhitas.
contain deep speculations of a philosophical character which "revolve around the two conceptions of Brahman and Atman". The Upanishads marked a reaction against sacrificial religion and are highly philosophical, dealing with the ultimate truth and reality, knowledge of which would emancipate a man. Important Upanishads are Mundaka, ]aittireya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Kiltha.
Besides, there are other ancient literary works which relate to the later Vedic period. Firstly, there are six Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas)-(i) Siksha (Pronunciation); (ii) Killpa (Ritual); (iii) Vyakarana (Grammar); (iv) Nirukta (Etymology); (v) Chhandas (Me~); and (iv) ]yotisha (Astronomy). They are composed in the form of Sutras-short rules for memorising. Secondly, there are four Upavedas-{i) Ayurveda; (ii) Dhanurveda; (iii) Gandharvaveda; and (iv) Shilpaveda.
The study of Aryan literature will remain incomplete without mentioning the six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy: (i) Kapila's Sankhya; (ii) Patanjali's Yoga; (iii) Gautama's Nyaya; (iv) Kanada's Vaishesika; (v) Jaimini's Purva Mimamsa; and (vi) Vyasa's Uttara Mimamsa.
(iv) Lastly, we have the Upanishads, 'secret or esoteric doctrines'. Some scholars derive the name from the root upani-sad which means "to sit down near some one" and isapplied to doctrines that may be imparted to a son or a trusted pupil 'seated near the teacher'. The Upanishads are either imbedded in the Aranyakas or form their supplements. They are also found as independent works. They
POITERY OF LATER VEDIC AGE
POITERY OF LATER VEDIC AGE
The later Vedic people used four types of pottery-blackand-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware. The last type of pottery was most popular with them, and ~ been found almost all over western D.P. However, the most distinctive pOttery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by the upper classes.
The later Vedic people used four types of pottery-blackand-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware. The last type of pottery was most popular with them, and ~ been found almost all over western D.P. However, the most distinctive pOttery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by the upper classes.
ECONOMY
ECONOMY
By now the Aryans had nearly all the equipments of a civilisation of the ancient type. Whereas the Rigveda speaks only of gold and copper or bronze, the later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, silver and iron. The elephant was tamed, though little used in war. The Aryans now cultivated a large range of crops including rice, and they understood something of irrigation and manuring.
Specialised trades and crafts had appeared. In place of the few craftsmen in the Rigveda, many are now referred to, including jewellers, goldsmiths, metalworkers, basketmakers, rope-makers, weavers, dyers, carpenters and potters. Various types of domestic servants are mentioned, and a rudimentary entertainment industry existed, with professional acrobats, fortune-tellers, flute-players and dancers, while there are also references to usurers and merchants.
Still there is no mention of coined money or writing. After a break of many centuries, Indian merchandise was again finding its way to Mesopotamia.
By now the Aryans had nearly all the equipments of a civilisation of the ancient type. Whereas the Rigveda speaks only of gold and copper or bronze, the later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, silver and iron. The elephant was tamed, though little used in war. The Aryans now cultivated a large range of crops including rice, and they understood something of irrigation and manuring.
Specialised trades and crafts had appeared. In place of the few craftsmen in the Rigveda, many are now referred to, including jewellers, goldsmiths, metalworkers, basketmakers, rope-makers, weavers, dyers, carpenters and potters. Various types of domestic servants are mentioned, and a rudimentary entertainment industry existed, with professional acrobats, fortune-tellers, flute-players and dancers, while there are also references to usurers and merchants.
Still there is no mention of coined money or writing. After a break of many centuries, Indian merchandise was again finding its way to Mesopotamia.
SOCIETY
SOCIETY
The four-fold division of society became clear. The power of the brahmanas increased so much that they sometimes came into conflict with the rajanyas for supremacy. But when the two upper orders faced the lower order, they would make up their differences. However, the vaishyas, alongwith the brahmanas and rajanyas (or kshatriyas), were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread. The shudras were deprived of this ceremony. Certain sections of artisans such as rathaJazras (chariot-makers) enjoyed a high status and were allowed upanayana.
In the family, father's power increased, and he could even disinherit his son. In princely families, the rule of primogeniture was being consolidated. Women's status deteriorated. The institution of gotra appeared; people began to practise gotra exogamy. Of the four ashramas or four stages of life, only three (brahmachari, grihastha and vanaprastha) are mentioned.
The four-fold division of society became clear. The power of the brahmanas increased so much that they sometimes came into conflict with the rajanyas for supremacy. But when the two upper orders faced the lower order, they would make up their differences. However, the vaishyas, alongwith the brahmanas and rajanyas (or kshatriyas), were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread. The shudras were deprived of this ceremony. Certain sections of artisans such as rathaJazras (chariot-makers) enjoyed a high status and were allowed upanayana.
In the family, father's power increased, and he could even disinherit his son. In princely families, the rule of primogeniture was being consolidated. Women's status deteriorated. The institution of gotra appeared; people began to practise gotra exogamy. Of the four ashramas or four stages of life, only three (brahmachari, grihastha and vanaprastha) are mentioned.
LATER VEDIC AGE: POLITY
LATER VEDIC AGE: POLITY
The king's power increased; he now ruled over kingdoms rather than over nomadic tribes. Tribal character was not wholly lost, but the kings established permanent capitals and a rudimentary administrative system.
According to the Brahmanas and Upanishads, created during the later-Vedic age, following kingdoms existed then:
Gandhar Situated in Western Punjab's Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts, the Gandhar kingdom had two important cities- Taxila and Pushakalavarta (Pushakalawati).
Kekaya The Kekaya kingdom was situated on the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom. Aswapati ruled Kekaya when Janak was the king of Videha.
Madra There were three Madra kingdoms: Uttar Madra (Kashmir), Eastern Madra (near Kangra), and Southern Madra (near Amritsar).
Kushinagar It was a kingdom probably situated in modern Uttar Pradesh's northern region.
Panchal The ancient Panchal kingdom was located in Bareilly, Badayun and Parrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh. During King Janak's rule in Videha, Panchal was ruled by Pravahan Jawali.
Kashi The capital of Kashi was Varanasi. King Ajatshatru was a contemporary of King Janak.
Koshal The capital of this kingdom was Ayodhya.Videha kingdom lay east of Koshal.
The old tribal assemblies (of the Rigvedic times) were still extant, but their power was waning rapidly, and by the end of this period the king's autocracy was limited only by the power of the brahmins, tradition and public opinion. At places, the old tribal organisations adapted themselves to the changed conditions, and ganas, or tribal republics, like those of the Sakyas and the Lichchavis, survived for many centuries in outlying districts. However, political divisions based on kinship were giving place to those based on geography.
If the popular assemblies had lost power, another element in the state was rising in influence-the ratnins or 'jewel bearers', the relatives, courtiers and palace officials of the king. These elements became so important that at the king's consecration, special sacrifices were performed to ensure their loyalty. The list of ratnins includes the purohita, senani, chamberlain, royal charioteer, samgrahitri (the treasurer), bhagadugha (revenue-collector), etc. Royal pretensions were supported by grand royal sacrifices like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Asvamedha, etc.
The judicial machinery had crystallised. Death penalty was still absent. The king now lived on taxes, not voluntary tributes. A standing army was still absent, and according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people (vis) from the same plate.
The king's power increased; he now ruled over kingdoms rather than over nomadic tribes. Tribal character was not wholly lost, but the kings established permanent capitals and a rudimentary administrative system.
According to the Brahmanas and Upanishads, created during the later-Vedic age, following kingdoms existed then:
Gandhar Situated in Western Punjab's Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts, the Gandhar kingdom had two important cities- Taxila and Pushakalavarta (Pushakalawati).
Kekaya The Kekaya kingdom was situated on the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom. Aswapati ruled Kekaya when Janak was the king of Videha.
Madra There were three Madra kingdoms: Uttar Madra (Kashmir), Eastern Madra (near Kangra), and Southern Madra (near Amritsar).
Kushinagar It was a kingdom probably situated in modern Uttar Pradesh's northern region.
Panchal The ancient Panchal kingdom was located in Bareilly, Badayun and Parrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh. During King Janak's rule in Videha, Panchal was ruled by Pravahan Jawali.
Kashi The capital of Kashi was Varanasi. King Ajatshatru was a contemporary of King Janak.
Koshal The capital of this kingdom was Ayodhya.Videha kingdom lay east of Koshal.
The old tribal assemblies (of the Rigvedic times) were still extant, but their power was waning rapidly, and by the end of this period the king's autocracy was limited only by the power of the brahmins, tradition and public opinion. At places, the old tribal organisations adapted themselves to the changed conditions, and ganas, or tribal republics, like those of the Sakyas and the Lichchavis, survived for many centuries in outlying districts. However, political divisions based on kinship were giving place to those based on geography.
If the popular assemblies had lost power, another element in the state was rising in influence-the ratnins or 'jewel bearers', the relatives, courtiers and palace officials of the king. These elements became so important that at the king's consecration, special sacrifices were performed to ensure their loyalty. The list of ratnins includes the purohita, senani, chamberlain, royal charioteer, samgrahitri (the treasurer), bhagadugha (revenue-collector), etc. Royal pretensions were supported by grand royal sacrifices like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Asvamedha, etc.
The judicial machinery had crystallised. Death penalty was still absent. The king now lived on taxes, not voluntary tributes. A standing army was still absent, and according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people (vis) from the same plate.
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